Henslowe writes: R at Q Jerusallem the 22 of marche 1591 ... xviijs
In modern English: Received at Jerusalem, 22nd March, 1592 ... 18 shillings
In case you're wondering, I don't know what the "Q" means; it's probably just a false start that Henslowe didn't cross out. Anyway, today Lord Strange's Men performed a lost play that had something to do with the city of Jerusalem. Of course, that city has a long and complex history, so this vague title may not be very informative. However, in his Catalogue of British Drama, Martin Wiggins proposes that it was about the capture of Jerusalem from the Turks by Godfrey of Bouillon during the eleventh century.
The argument goes as follows: in 1594, a stationer registered his intention to publish a playtext entitled Godfrey of Bouillon, with the Conquest of Jerusalem. The play was never published in the end, but the title hints at a connection with Henslowe's Jerusalem. Then, later in 1594, Henslowe recorded performances of a play (also lost) entitled The Second Part of Godfrey of Bouillon. He makes no reference to a first part, and of all the titles in Henslowe's Diary, Jerusalem is the only one that could plausibly be identified as such. It is therefore possible that Jerusalem was a play about Godfrey's capture of the city, and was later followed by a sequel. The evidence is not conclusive, but does make sense of these fragments of information.
Statue of Godfrey of Bouillon
in Innsbruck Cathedral
Godfrey of Bouillon was a commander in the First Crusade whose mission was to take Jerusalem from its Muslim rulers. After successfully capturing the city, he achieved a legendary status in the centuries after his death. The playwright may have read his story in William Caxton's 1481 translation of William of Tyre's Godfrey of Bouillon. An alternative source is the 1575 Italian poem by Torquato Tasso entitled Gerusalemme Liberata, although the first English translation didn't appear until 1594. It is a shame that we don't know which of these texts was the inspiration, because the two would have produced quite different plays. Let's look at the two possibilities.
If the play was based on William of Tyre, it would have been a relatively straightforward account of the crusaders' journey across Europe and the Middle East, followed by the campaign for Jerusalem. William relates how Godfrey's forces besiege the city. The Turks persecute its Christian minority in response, but the crusaders eventually capture the city and massacre the Turks. No doubt the playwright would have given Edward Alleyn a central role as the warlike Christian Godfrey, or perhaps as a villainous Turkish leader. The play might thus have had a similar tone and content to Muly Molocco, which Lord Strange's Men had already performed several times in the preceding weeks. If you are interested, you can read William of Tyre here, in a rather handsome edition created by William Morris's Kelmscott Press.
Rinaldo and the Wizard of Ascalona by Tiepolo,
illustrating a fantastical incident in Tasso's poem
If the play was based on Tasso, however, it might have been more fantastical. Tasso's poem is only loosely based on history; instead, it tells various romantic and magical stories relating to the exploits of Godfrey's knights. As such, it is similar to Ludovico Ariosto's tales about Orlando and his knights in Orlando Furioso, and the play would have been reminiscent of Robert Greene's stage adaptation of that poem, which Lord Strange's Men performed back in February.
FURTHER READING
Jerusalem information
Martin Wiggins, British Drama, 1533-1642: A Catalogue, vol. 3 (Oxford University Press, 2013), entry 892.
Henslowe writes: R at constantine the 21 marche 1591 ... xijs
In modern English: Received at Constantine, 21st March, 1592 ... 12 shillings
Today, Lord Strange's Men staged a lost play called Constantine. This was the first time they had performed it since Henslowe's records began in mid-February. It did very poorly at the box office and this is the only record of its performance. It was thus probably an old play that was at the end of its stage life.
Unfortunately, the play's title is not very illuminating as to its subject, because there have been numerous Constantines in history and literature. In his catalogue of British drama, Martin Wiggins proposes that in the English Renaissance, the two most famous Constantines would have been the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great and the mythical King Constantine of Britain. Let's briefly and cautiously imagine those possibilities.
Detail from The Baptism of Constantine, workshop of Raphael, c.1520
Constantine the Great was a 4th century Roman Emperor. He is most famous for being the first Christian Emperor of Rome, having converted after experiencing a dream or vision on the eve of a battle. The dramatist might have been able to turn this event into a pious play, and might also have been able to work in some patriotism, given the fact that Constantine visited Britain on more than one occasion.
Stonehenge, from Joan Blaeu's Atlas Maior (1660s)
King Constantine is a figure largely invented by the medieval pseudo-historian Geoffrey of Monmouth. Geoffrey writes that Constantine was the successor to King Arthur but his reign did not match that of his illustrious predecessor. He successfully suppressed a revolt by the two sons of Mordred, but when they both took refuge in different churches, Constantine broke the law of sanctuary and killed them in front of the altars. Four years later, he was "struck down by the vengeance of God" but was still honoured with a burial alongside Uther Pendragon within Stonehenge. This story reminds me of another lost play, Harry of Cornwall, which Strange's Men performed back in February; it too featured an impious murder in a church, against a backdrop of rebellion.
This is all guesswork, and the myriad other Constantines in history mean that it's futile to ponder further. It's a reminder to all playwrights to use specific titles; come on, how hard can it be?
FURTHER READING
Constantine information
Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, trans. Lewis Thorpe (Penguin, 1966), 262.
P.J. Casey, 'Constantine I', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2009).
Martin Wiggins, British Drama, 1533-1642: A Catalogue, vol. 3 (Oxford University Press, 2013), entry 890.
Henslowe writes: R at Joronymo the 20 marche 1591 ... xxxviijs
In modern English: Received at Hieronimo, 20th March, 1592 ... 38 shillings
Woodcut from the 1615 edition of The Spanish Tragedy.
Today, Lord Strange's Men gave another performance of Hieronimo, which is almost certainly an alternate title for Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy, a play that they had previously performed just under a week ago. You can read more about this play in the entry for the 14th of March.
The Spanish Tragedy made spectacular box office back on the 14th, but it made only half that amount this time. As with the performances on the 16th and 18th, we appear to be seeing audiences losing interest when a very popular play is revived too soon after a blockbuster performance.
Henslowe writes: R at the Jewe of malta the 18 of marche 1591 ... xxxixs
In modern English: Received at The Jew of Malta, 18th March, 1592 ... 39 shillings
Caravaggio's portrait of the Grand
Master of the Knights of Malta,
1607-8.
Today, Lord Strange's Men performed their satirical comic tragedy The Jew of Malta again. You can read more about this play in the blog entry for 26th February.
The company had last performed this play just over a week ago, receiving very strong box office returns. On this outing, the play was much less successful, making a full 17 shillings less this time. As with yesterday's production, it's hard not to suspect that the company had returned to this play too soon.
Saturday, 26th February - 50 shillings
Friday, 10th March - 56 shillings
Saturday, 18th March - 39 shillings
What's next?
There will be no blog entry tomorrow because 19th March was a Sunday in 1592. Henslowe's Diary ... as a Blog! will thus return on 20th March for a week that will include two new plays alongside some familiar faces.
Henslowe writes: R at mvlo mvllocco the 17 of marche 1591 ... xxviijs vjd
In modern English: Received at Muly Molocco, 17th March, 1592 ... 28 shillings and sixpence
1629 Portuguese illustration of the Battle of Alcazar
Today, Lord Strange's Men returned to their fairly popular play Muly Molocco again, which they had last performed two and a half weeks ago. The play was about Abd el-Malik's struggle for the throne of Morocco; you can read more about it in the blog entry for 21st February.
The play continues to hover in the mid-range of box office; its takings so far have been 29, 34 and now 28 shillings.
Henslowe writes: R at harey the 16 of marche 1591 ... xxxjs vjd
In modern English: Received at Harry, 16th March 1592 ... 31 shillings
1540s portrait of King
Henry VI
Today, Lord Strange's Men performed Harry VI again. At least, I assume they did; Henslowe writes merely "Harry"which I suppose could refer to another play, Harry of Cornwall. But I doubt it. For Henslowe right now, there was only one Harry that mattered, and that was the instant blockbuster Harry VI. This play was almost certainly an alternate title for Shakespeare's First Part of Henry VI; you can read more about it in the blog entry for 3rd March.
This was the company's fourth staging of Harry VI within a fortnight, a very unusual frequency of performance. The players clearly wanted to milk this cash cow while it lasted. But its box office returns were now plummeting into mediocrity:
Friday, 3rd March - 75 shillings
Tuesday, 7th March - 60 shillings
Saturday, 11th March - 47 shillings
Thursday, 16th March - 31 shillings
31 shillings was not bad, but far less than the 75 the play had made on its premiere. Perhaps the frequent performances were a bad strategy for sustaining interest among the company's audience?
Henslowe writes: R at Jeronymo the 14 marche 1591 ... iij11 xjs
In modern English: Received at Hieronimo, 14th March, 1592 ... £3 and 11 shillings
Today, Lord Strange's Men performed Hieronimo, which is almost certainly an alternate title for The Spanish Tragedy by Thomas Kyd. Yesterday, and also a couple of weeks ago, we saw Strange's Men perform a lost play entitled The Spanish Comedy of Don Horatio, which apparently portrayed the events leading up to The Spanish Tragedy. Now, we see the famous tragedy itself.
The Spanish Tragedy was one of the most popular plays of the English Renaissance theatre, and it is still occasionally revived today. By 1592, itmay already have been several years old. It was often referred to simply as Hieronimo, after its central character of a grieving father who seeks revenge for the murder of his son. But even though it was an old play, Hieronimo was still incredibly successful at the box office: Henslowe's takings, which work out to 71 shillings, are almost as high as the receipts for the brand new First Part of Henry VI. No doubt Edward Alleyn's performance as Hieronimo contributed to its ongoing popularity.
Indeed, The Spanish Tragedy seems to have captured the imagination of Elizabethan playgoers like no other, and it became a byword for crowd-pleasing. Later playwrights sneered at the affection some audience members held for it; in the induction to Bartholomew Fair (1614), a jealous Ben Jonson mocked "He that will swear Hieronimo or Andronicus are the best plays". In my description of The Spanish Tragedy, I'll quote a number of its most famous lines, because Kyd's rhythmic and memorable speeches became icons of Renaissance popular culture.
The play
The Spanish Tragedy begins with a ghost, Don Andrea, recalling his past:
When this eternal substance of my soul
Did live imprisoned in my wanton flesh
Each in their function serving other's need
I was a courtier in the Spanish court...
Andrea relates how he loved the Spanish King's niece, Bel-Imperia, and hoped to marry her, but was killed in battle by Balthazar, heir to the Portuguese throne. The figure of Revenge then appears, and assures Andrea that his desire for vengeance on Balthazar will be fulfilled. Andrea and Revenge sit down to watch the events unfold, and throughout the play they comment on what they see.
Balthazar has been captured in battle, and is taken to the Spanish court. To forge peace, the Spanish King decides to marry Balthazar to Bel-Imperia. But Bel-Imperia has other ideas, as she has fallen in love with Andrea's friend Horatio. Her Machiavellian brother Lorenzo is furious when he finds out, and hires murderers to kill Horatio.
Horatio is ambushed by Lorenzo's henchmen, who stab him and hang him from an arbour. His cries wake his father, Hieronimo, who enters with the lines
What outcries pluck me from my naked bed
And chill my throbbing heart with trembling fear?
Woodcut from the 1615 edition of The Spanish Tragedy. Hieronimo is discovering Horatio's body hanging in an arbour. A masked murderer is dragging Bel-Imperia away.
Hieronimo and his wife Isabella find the body of Horatio and they lament his death at length. One of Hieronimo's laments became exceptionally famous:
Oh eyes, no eyes, but fountains fraught with tears!
Oh life, no life, but lively form of death!
O world, no world, but mass of public wrongs...
As he watches all of this, Andrea becomes exasperated; instead of gloating over his revenge upon Balthazar, he has instead found himself watching the suffering of people he loves. But Revenge counsels patience; he doesn't quite say "Revenge is a dish best served cold", but he comes pretty close.
Hieronimo and Isabella, meanwhile, are going mad with grief, so that when Hieronimo interrupts the Spanish King, wildly demanding "Justice, oh justice to Hieronimo!" it is easy for the courtiers to dismiss him, and Hieronimo slinks away, saying to himself "Hieronimo beware, go by, go by!"
Isabella commits suicide, but Hieronimo instead plots a crazy but effective revenge. Working in league with the despairing Bel-Imperia, Hieronimo convinces Lorenzo and Balthazar that they should entertain the kings of Spain and Portugal with a play. And so the four of them perform a tragedy, Soliman and Perseda, to the assembled court. During their performance, the levels of meta-theatricality become extraordinary: the real-life audience in the Rose playhouse watches Andrea and Revenge watch the Spanish court watch the play-within-the-play.
Hieronimo's cunning plan is that the prop knives in the play are in fact real knives. So, in front of the two kings, Hieronimo and Bel-Imperia kill Lorenzo and Balthazar, and then Bel-Imperia kills herself. Only when the courtiers' applause dies down and the bodies fail to rise for their bows do the two kings realize what has happened. Hieronimo then reveals the corpse of Horatio and explains his actions, beginning with a lament:
Here lay my hope, and here my hope hath end;
Here lay my heart, and here my heart was slain;
Here lay my treasure, here my treasure lost;
Here lay my bliss, and here my bliss bereft.
But hope, heart, treasure, joy and bliss,
All fled, failed, died, yea, all decayed with this.
Image from a 17th century Dutch adaptation of The Spanish Tragedy entitled Don Jeronimo, Marschalk van Spanjen. Lorenzo, Balthazar and Bel-Imperia are dead, and Hieronimo is revealing the body of his son. The two kings are just realizing that the stage deaths were for real...
In a final burst of violence, Hieronimo bites out his own tongue in a refusal to speak more and kills himself.
Andrea and Revenge enjoy watching these events. And at the end of the play, Revenge, satisfied with his work, tells Andrea that it is time to return to the land of the dead:
Then haste we down to meet thy friends and foes,
To place thy friends in ease, the rest in woes.
For here, though Death doth end their misery,
I'll there begin their endless tragedy.
If you would like to read The Spanish Tragedy, there are numerous modern-spelling editions available.
What we learn from this
Decades after its first performances in the 1580s and 90s, English writers were still quoting the play's most popular lines. In her edition of The Spanish Tragedy, Emma Smith collects together an amazing array of allusions, parodies, pastiches and homages to lines from the play. The most popular lines and speeches include some of those quoted above: "Hieronimo beware; go by, go by!", "What outcries pluck me from my naked bed?", "When this eternal substance of my soul..." and, of course, "Oh eyes, no eyes, but fountains fraught with tears!"
I can't help wondering whether the audience in the Rose might have been able to recite along with some of these speeches. Is it possible that performances of The Spanish Tragedy might have eventually ended up something like screenings of The Rocky Horror Picture Show?
What's next?
There will be no post tomorrow because Henslowe records no performance on 15th March. We don't know why - perhaps the company were performing at the court instead, or perhaps Edward Alleyn had laryngitis after ranting too much as Hieronimo. Whatever the reason, Henslowe's Diary ... as a Blog! will return on 16th March.
FURTHER READING
The Spanish Tragedy information
Emma Smith, ed. Thomas Kyd: The Spanish Tragedie, with Anonymous: The First Part of Jeronimo (Penguin, 1998)
Martin Wiggins, British Drama, 1533-1642: A Catalogue, vol. 2 (Oxford University Press, 2012), entry 783.
Clara Calvo and Jesús Tronch, eds. The Spanish Tragedy (Bloomsbury, 2013).
Sally-Beth MacLean and Lawrence Manley, Lord Strange's Men and their Plays (Yale University Press, 2014), 78-81.
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